INTERSECT: Intersecting flows of Islamophobia

Aim and Organization

Launched in 2018 and ending in 2024 the INTERSECT project led by Professor Iselin Frydenlund and Professor Torkel Brekke has brought together a diverse team of scholars to explore Islamophobia across different contexts and domains. The ideas and design of INTERSECT emerged from a 2016 workshop funded by C-REX.  The center has continued to provide a crucial research environment for the project by including INTERSECT researchers and findings in international conferences organized by C-REX. INTERSECT has generously funded by the Research Council Norway and hosted by MF – The Norwegian School of Theology, Religion and Society in Oslo. INTERSECT has produced many research articles and findings from the project have been presented at several conferences in different parts of the world, including at the American Academy of Religion in November 2023. The project hosted an international conference in Oslo in the summer of 2023 to discuss the findings and mark the end of the project. These findings have not only contributed to the academic discourse on Islamophobia but have also informed public policy and societal understanding of this pressing issue.

A Multidisciplinary Approach

The INTERSECT project has been grounded in theories and methods from several disciplines, including the study of religion, sociology, political science, media studies and South Asia studies. The project employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Qualitative methods provide rich insights into the lived experiences of Muslim communities and the local manifestations and interpretations of Islamophobia, while quantitative methods offer valuable data on the prevalence, patterns, and correlates of Islamophobic attitudes and behaviors. The multidisciplinary approach has allowed researchers to examine Islamophobia through the lens of power dynamics, historical legacies, and the intersections of various social identities and systems of discrimination. At the same time, the project has produced criticism of some of the grand theories in earlier research and has foregrounded findings that question and challenge sweeping assumptions about the fundamentally Islamophobic structures of Western societies. For example, through critical discussions of the influential concept of racialization in some of INTERSECT’s publications.

Central Discoveries

Some central discoveries of INTERSECT are the global, transnational and multidimensional nature of Islamophobia, as well as its intersections with various forms of discrimination and marginalization based on race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. The project has shed light on the role of media representations and public discourse in shaping and perpetuating Islamophobic narratives. Researchers have analyzed how certain media outlets and political rhetoric contribute to the construction of negative stereotypes and the vilification of Muslim communities. Furthermore, the INTERSECT project has explored the impact of Islamophobia on various aspects of Muslim individuals' and communities' lives, including employment, education, healthcare, and civic participation.

"Love Jihad."

One example of the project’s findings was the 2021 special issue on "Love Jihad.", which contributed to the understanding of Islamophobia through the lens of gender and sexuality. The concept of "love jihad" perpetuates the stereotype of the predatory Muslim male, portraying Muslim men as strategically seducing and entrapping non-Muslim women for the purpose of conversion and Islamization. This narrative is rooted in colonial-era anxieties in Asia about Muslim masculinity and the perceived threat to the purity of the nation and its women. It reflects broader Islamophobic discourses that construct Muslims as a demographic and cultural threat. Right-wing nationalist groups have instrumentalized the "love jihad" trope to justify violence against Muslim men and to police inter-religious relationships. The Special Issue on Love Jihad” contributes to the research literature by demonstrating that Islamophobia is not a phenomenon flowing from the “West to the Rest”. By tracing how the concept “Love Jihad” travels from India to Africa, Europe and North America, the INTERSECT project foregrounds the global flows of Islamophopbia.

Global Islamophobia

The 2023 special issue on global Islamophobia has enriched the understanding of the various ways in which anti-Muslim ideas and concepts travel across national and cultural boundaries. In this special issue, Ganesh and Faggiani explore how transnational disinformation campaigns, particularly those orchestrated by the Internet Research Agency in Russia, exploit Islamophobia to sow discord and influence political outcomes in Western democracies. Their study highlights the role of digital platforms in spreading Islamophobic content and the strategic use of Islamophobia to manipulate public opinion. Kozaric and Brekke examine the "scientification" of Islamophobia through platforms like WikiIslam, which present selective information about Islam and Muslims under the guise of scientific objectivity. This process can contribute to the legitimization of Islamophobic narratives and their dissemination across various media channels.

In the same issue, David Stroup investigates the racialization of Hui Muslim minorities in China, particularly through social media platforms like Weibo. The study reveals how Islamophobia in China is intertwined with broader state policies and societal attitudes that marginalize and stigmatize Muslim communities. Menon explores the use of Islamophobic humor by Hindu nationalist groups in India, particularly in the context of the Babri Masjid demolition. This research highlights how humor is used as a tool to normalize and propagate Islamophobic sentiments, contributing to the broader project of Hindu nationalism. Frydenlund examines the role of Buddhist nationalism in perpetuating Islamophobia in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. The study shows how narratives of Buddhist extinction and demographic threats are used to justify violence against Muslim communities, drawing parallels with similar Islamophobic discourses in other parts of the world.

The Way Forward

The INTERSECT project has made significant strides in advancing the understanding of Islamophobia and its intersections with various forms of discrimination and marginalization. In particular, the project elucidates the global, transnational and multidimensional nature of Islamophobia, its manifestations in different contexts, and its far-reaching consequences. Taking the findings and perspectives from INTERSECT as a point of departure, future research about Islamophobia could investigate topics like the use of Islamophobia, accusations of Islamophobia, in geopolitical competition, the roles that Islamophobia can take in processes of democratic erosion and increasing autocratization in some states, and the continued role of nation states in explaining variations of Islamophobia, despite global and transnational dynamics, as well as the importance of taking Muslims seriously as active interpreters of local as well as global dynamics of exclusion.