Pål Kraft

• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2023). The income-happiness nexus: uncovering the importance of social comparison processes in subjective wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283601.
• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2023). Exploring the relationship between multiple dimensions of subjective socioeconomic status and self-reported physical and mental health: the mediating role of affect. Frontiers in Public Health. ISSN 2296-2565. 11. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1138367.
• Stenseng, Frode; Bredvei Steinsholt, Ingvild; Hygen, Beate Wold & Kraft, Pål (2023). Running to get “lost”? Two types of escapism in recreational running and their relations to exercise dependence and subjective well-being. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035196. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Escapism is a fundamental motivation in many forms of activity engagements. At its core, escapism is “a habitual diversion of the mind … as an escape from reality or routine”. Accordingly, escapism may entail many adaptive and maladaptive psychological antecedents, covariates, and outcomes. However, few studies have been conducted on escapism as a motivational mindset in running. Here, in a sample of recreational runners (N = 227), we applied a two-dimensional model of escapism, comprising self-expansion (adaptive escapism) and self-suppression (maladaptive escapism), and examined how they were related to exercise dependence and subjective well-being. First, confirmatory factor analyses showed that the escapism dimensions were highly diversifiable in the sample. Then, correlational analyses showed that self-expansion was positively correlated to subjective well-being, whereas self-suppression was negatively related to well-being. Self-suppression was more strongly related to exercise dependence compared to self-expansion. Finally, path analyses evidenced an explanatory role of self-expansion and self-suppression in the inverse relationship between exercise dependence and well-being. In conclusion, the present findings support escapism as a relevant framework for understanding the relationship between exercise dependence in running and subjective well-being.

• Kraft, Pål; Kraft, Brage; Hagen, Thomas & Espeseth, Thomas (2022). Subjective Socioeconomic Status, Cognitive Abilities, and Personal Control: Associations With Health Behaviours. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784758.
• Kraft, Pål & Kraft, Brage (2021). Explaining socioeconomic disparities in health behaviours: A review of biopsychological pathways involving stress and inflammation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. ISSN 0149-7634. 127, s. 689–708. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.019.
• Ulset, Vidar; Czajkowski, Nikolai Olavi; Kraft, Brage; Kraft, Pål; Wikenius, Ellen & Kleppestø, Thomas Haarklau [Vis alle 7 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (2019). Are unpopular children more likely to get sick? Longitudinal links between popularity and infectious diseases in early childhood . PLOS ONE. ISSN 1932-6203. 14(9), s. 1–14. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222222. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Drozd, Filip; Skeie, Linda Gail; Kraft, Pål & Kvale, Dag (2014). A web-based intervention trial for depressive symptoms and subjective well-being in patients with chronic HIV infection. AIDS Care. ISSN 0954-0121. 26(9), s. 1080–1089. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2013.869541. Vis sammendrag

  The current study examined the efficacy of a web-based intervention (WBI; Avanti) on symptoms of depression and well-being for patients diagnosed with HIV. A two-armed randomized trial recruited patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) at an outpatient clinic. Thirty-six patients were allocated to Avanti and 31 patients to a control group. Primary outcomes were symptoms of depression and subjective well-being (SWB), and secondary outcomes included life satisfaction and affect balance. Paired tests showed that only patients following Avanti had significant improvements in SWB by 3 months as well as affect balance. No significant differences between groups were detected in any of the outcome parameters at baseline after 3 months, as expected from group size and variability in the parameters. However, time since HIV diagnosis and ART initiation moderated the effects of Avanti. In conclusion, our data show that patients with HIV infection may benefit from a WBI in adjunct to medical treatment.

• Kraft, Pål (2013). Konsekvenser av cannabisbruk for arbeid og utdanning. I Bretteville-Jensen, Anne Line (Red.), Hva vet vi om cannabis?. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 978-82-15-02139-3. s. 83–97. Vis sammendrag

  Cannabis (hasj og marihuana) er både velkjent og ukjent på samme tid. Det er 50 år siden cannabis ble introdusert her i landet og mange har egne erfaringer med stoffet. Mye har imidlertid forandret seg: mengden av virkestoffer i hasj og marihuana er endret, det har kommet nye cannabislignende produkter, hjemmedyrking er blitt mer utbredt og ny viten om skader er framkommet. Hvilke argumenter støttes av gjeldende forskning? Men hva vet vi egentlig om cannabis og om de ulike grupper av brukere, om stoffets virkninger og om effekter av tiltak? Mange mener mye om norsk narkotikapolitikk, og det opereres med flere «sannheter» om hva bruken kan føre til – både av positive og negative ting. Hvilke argumenter kan egentlig støttes av gjeldende forskning, og hvilke spørsmål kan besvares ut fra den kunnskapen vi har til nå? Kunnskapsstatus, ikke politikk Boka argumenterer ikke for et bestemt narkotikapolitisk ståsted eller for bestemte narkotikapolitiske tiltak. Viktige temaer som forebygging og behandling er utelatt. Gjennom bidrag fra ulike samfunnsvitenskaper, juss og medisin er målsettingen likevel å formidle kunnskapsstatusen på sentral områder rundt bruken av cannabis.

• Halkjelsvik, Torleif; Lund, Karl Erik; Kraft, Pål & Rise, Jostein (2013). Fear appeals in advanced tobacco control environments: the impact of a National Mass Media Campaign in Norway. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. 28(5), s. 888–897. doi: 10.1093/her/cyt064. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Helsedirektorat sin anti-røykekampanje i 2012 har truleg hatt ein liten positiv effekt på oppfatning av helserisikoen ved røyking og motivasjon til å slutte å røyke. Men berre kanskje ein effekt på røykeåtferd. I alle tilfelle er effektane av kampanjen svært små. Sjølv om SIRUS fann ein liten positiv effekt på nokre av kampanjemåla, fann instituttet ingen endring på andre mål. Det er i utgangspunktet vanskeleg å måle effekten av slike landsomfattande kampanjar, så instituttet kan ikkje vere heilt sikre på at dei små effektane vi fann skuldast sjølve kampanjen eller andre faktorar. Reklamekampanjen frå Helsedirektoratet vart vist på tv, internett og i aviser i byrjinga av 2012 og brukte frykt som hovudverkemiddel. Målet var ein direkte innverknad på røykeåtferd, motivasjon til å slutte og helseoppfatningar. I overkant av 2500 røykjarar deltok i studien, der dei like før og like etter den sju veker lange kampanjeperioden fylte ut eit spørjeskjema på internett. Deltakarane vart delte inn i to grupper: dei som hugsa å ha sett reklamen, og dei som ikkje hugsa den. Kampanjen gav inga klar endring i røykestatusen, men tendensen gjekk i riktig retning. Blant dei som hadde sett reklamen, var det også ein auke i oppfatninga av dei potensielle helsefarane ved røyking. Dette gjaldt ikkje for dei som ikkje hadde sett reklamen

• Drozd, Filip; Raeder, Sabine; Kraft, Pål & Bjørkli, Cato Alexsander (2013). Multilevel Growth Curve Analyses of Treatment Effects of a Web-Based Intervention for Stress Reduction: Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. ISSN 1438-8871. 15(4). doi: 10.2196/jmir.2570. Vis sammendrag

  Background: Stress is commonly experienced by many people and it is a contributing factor to many mental and physical health conditions, However, few efforts have been made to develop and test the effects of interventions for stress. Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a Web-based stress-reduction intervention on stress, investigate mindfulness and procrastination as potential mediators of any treatment effects, and test whether the intervention is equally effective for females as males, all ages, and all levels of education. Methods: We employed a randomized controlled trial in this study. Participants were recruited online via Facebook and randomly assigned to either the stress intervention or a control condition. The Web-based stress intervention was fully automated and consisted of 13 sessions over 1 month. The controls were informed that they would get access to the intervention after the final data collection. Data were collected at baseline and at 1, 2, and 6 months after intervention onset by means of online questionnaires. Outcomes were stress, mindfulness, and procrastination, which were all measured at every measurement occasion. Results: A total of 259 participants were included and were allocated to either the stress intervention (n=126) or the control condition (n=133). Participants in the intervention and control group were comparable at baseline; however, results revealed that participants in the stress intervention followed a statistically different (ie, cubic) developmental trajectory in stress levels over time compared to the controls. A growth curve analysis showed that participants in the stress intervention (unstandardized beta coefficient [B]=–3.45, P=.008) recovered more quickly compared to the control group (B=–0.81, P=.34) from baseline to 1 month. Although participants in the stress intervention did show increases in stress levels during the study period (B=2.23, P=.008), long-term stress levels did decrease again toward study end at 6 months (B=–0.28, P=.009). Stress levels in the control group, however, remained largely unchanged after 1 month (B=0.29, P=.61) and toward 6 months (B=–0.03, P=.67). Mediation analyses showed nonlinear (ie, cubic) specific indirect effects of mindfulness and a linear specific indirect effect of procrastination on stress. In simple terms, the intervention increased mindfulness and decreased procrastination, which was related to lower stress levels. Finally, the effect of the stress intervention was independent of participants’ gender, age, or education. Conclusions: The results from this randomized controlled trial suggest that a Web-based intervention can reduce levels of stress in a normal population and that both mindfulness and procrastination may be important components included in future eHealth interventions for stress. Trial Registration: International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN): 25619675; http://controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN25619675 (Archived by Webcite at http://www.webcitation.org/6FxB1gOKY)

• Haga, Silje Marie; Lynne, Anita; Slinning, Kari & Kraft, Pål (2012). A qualitative study of depressive symptoms and well-being among first-time mothers. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. ISSN 0283-9318. 26(3), s. 458–466. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6712.2011.00950.x. Vis sammendrag

  BACKGROUND AND AIM: Ten to 15% of women experience postpartum depression. First-time mothers are particularly at risk. The present qualitative study aimed to gain insight in terms of why some women find the transition of becoming a mother to be so emotionally taxing that they feel some level of depressed mood, while others feel mostly content after having a baby. METHOD: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 self-selected first-time mothers. Participants described their pregnancy and birth experience, expectations and experiences with regard to the postpartum period, social support and what they considered important with regard to well-being and depression in the postpartum period. Data were analysed by means of thematic analyses. Ethical approval was granted by the Regional Ethics Committee. RESULTS: Two approaches to motherhood emerged, which we refer to as 'relaxed' and 'controlled'. These approaches influenced how the mothers had envisioned the postpartum period, their need for mastery and how they experienced it emotionally. Social support and managing breastfeeding stood out as important with regard to well-being and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: Frequent consultations with midwifes and public health nurses during the pregnancy and the postpartum period gives unique opportunities for preventive work. The consultations should to a greater extent focus on the woman's expectations and needs, and the partner should be present for an open discussion on how they best support each other in this vulnerable period

• Haga, Silje Marie; Ulleberg, Pål; Slinning, Kari; Kraft, Pål; Steen, Thorbjørn & Staff, Anne Cathrine (2012). A longitudinal study of postpartum depressive symptoms: multilevel growth curve analyses of emotion regulation strategies, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and social support. Archives of Women's Mental Health. ISSN 1434-1816. 15(3), s. 175–184. doi: 10.1007/s00737-012-0274-2. Vis sammendrag

  Postpartum depression is a serious health issue affecting as many as 10–15 % of postpartum women. This longitudinal study aimed to explore how psychological variables such as cognitive emotion regulation strategies, breastfeeding self-efficacy (BSE), and dimensions of social support predicted postpartum depressive symptoms (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale). The data were collected with web-based survey questionnaires between May 2008 and December 2009, in a sample of 737 new mothers. The same questionnaire was surveyed at three points in time: 6 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months postpartum. Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling (level 1, time points; level 2, person). Results showed that BSE, certain cognitive emotion regulation strategies, perceived available support, and need for support predicted the rate of postpartum depressive symptoms. Only breastfeeding self-efficacy predicted change in postpartum depressive symptoms. This study illustrates the importance of psychological variables with regard to postpartum depressive symptoms. Implications for preventative efforts are discussed.

• Stenseng, Frode; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (2012). Activity Engagement as Escape from Self: The Role of Self-Suppression and Self-Expansion. Leisure Sciences. ISSN 0149-0400. 34(1), s. 19–38. doi: 10.1080/01490400.2012.633849.
• Stenseng, Frode; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (2011). The dark side of leisure: obsessive passion and its covariates and outcomes. Leisure Studies. ISSN 0261-4367. 30(1), s. 49–62. doi: 10.1080/02614361003716982.
• Duckert, Fanny; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2011). Alkoholproblemer på arbeidsplassen - en arena for tidlig intervensjon via nye medier. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. ISSN 0332-6470. 48, s. 767–773. Vis sammendrag

  Norsk arbeidsliv taper hvert år store summer på grunn av alkoholrelaterte problemer på arbeidsplassen. Tidlig intervensjon vil kunne forebygge vanskene og øke muligheten for endring av risikofylte drikkemønstre.

• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Schaalma, Herman (2010). Looking Inside the Black Box: Using Intervention Mapping to Describe the Development of the Automated Smoking Cessation Intervention ‘Happy Ending’. Journal of Smoking Cessation. ISSN 1834-2612. 5(1), s. 29–56. Vis sammendrag

  The digital therapy intervention for smoking cessation, ‘Happy Ending’, has been shown to be efficacious in two previous randomised controlled trials. The aim of the current article is to disentangle the rationale of the intervention and describe its development. For this purpose, Intervention Mapping is used as a descriptive tool. The intervention is fully automated and delivered by means of the Internet and mobile phones. It is based on self-regulation theory, social cognitive theory, cognitive– behaviour therapy, motivational interviewing and relapse prevention. The ordering of the content is based on a reasoned chronology, modelled according to psychological processes that people experience at certain time points in a process of therapy-supported self-regulation. The design of the intervention is innovative in that it combines four media channels (SMS, IVR, e-mail, and web), and in the combination of just-in-time therapy and a tunnelling strategy based on the natural chronology of quitting. The two forms of just-in-time therapy are a craving helpline (mainly targeting negative affect), and the provision of relapse therapy based on a daily assessment of the target behaviour. The present article meets the recent calls for more thorough descriptions of interventions, and may inform systematic reviews and the development of interventions.

• Haga, Silje Marie; Kraft, Pål & Corby, Emma Kate (2009). Emotion Regulation: Antecedents and Well-Being Outcomes of Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression in Cross-Cultural Samples. Journal of Happiness Studies. ISSN 1389-4978. 10(3), s. 271–291. doi: 10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3.
• Kraft, Pål; Drozd, Filip & Olsen, Elin (2009). ePsychology : Designing Theory-Based Health Promotion Interventions. Communications of the Association for Information Systems. ISSN 1529-3181. 24, s. 399–426. Vis sammendrag

  Persuasive technologies pervade much of our everyday lives today in areas from marketing to public health. In the latter case, persuasive technology represents a promising area of application. However, we know much too little about how to design effective interventions to support sustained behaviour change and improved well-being. The purpose of the present paper was to contribute in two ways. First, we want to contribute to current practice in designing such interventions. Second, we try to identify key research questions that could be a point of departure for a more detailed and comprehensive future research program. We do this by means of expressing 28 propositions. In sum, the propositions reflect that the construction of digital interventions should be seen as an iterative process which should take into account both content and design factors. However, we argue that intervention research and practical design experience is not just something that follows basic research at a polite distance, but rather is its inherent complement.

• Rise, Jostein; Kovac, Velibor Bobo; Kraft, Pål & Moan, Inger Synnøve (2008). Predicting the intention to quit smoking and quitting behaviour: Extending the theory of planned behaviour. British Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-107X. 13. doi: 10.1027/1901-2276/a000040. Vis sammendrag

  Forskerne ønsket å undersøke hvilke muligheter man har for å forutsi intensjoner om å slutte å røyke og røykeslutt ved hjelp av teorien om planlagt adferd (TPB). Røykernes fremtidsorientering, antall røykte sigaretter, planlegging og tidligere handlinger ble også studert. 103 studenter som røykte daglig ble undersøkt med fire måneders mellomrom for å måle hvor mange som sluttet i denne perioden og hvilke faktorer som bidro til det. Studien viser at det er en klar sammenheng mellom det å oppleve å ha kontroll og det å ha til hensikt å slutte å røyke. Følelsesmessige holdninger og tydelige atferdsnormer spiller en mer avgjørende rolle i å motivere røykere til å slutte enn andre momenter i TPB. Studien tyder også på at selvregulerende strategier spiller en mer sentral rolle enn motivasjonsfaktorer i avhengighetskapende atferdsformer generelt.

• Brendryen, Håvar; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2008). A Digital Smoking Cessation Program Delivered Through Internet and Cell Phone Without Nicotine Replacement (Happy Ending): Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. ISSN 1438-8871. 10(5). doi: 10.2196/jmir.1005. Vis sammendrag

  Background: Happy Ending (HE) is an intense 1-year smoking cessation program delivered via the Internet and cell phone. HE consists of more than 400 contacts by email, Web pages, interactive voice response, and short message service technology. HE includes a craving helpline and a relapse prevention system, providing just-in-time therapy. All the components of the program are fully automated. Objective: The objectives were to describe the rationale for the design of HE, to assess the 12-month efficacy of HE in a sample of smokers willing to attempt to quit without the use of nicotine replacement therapy, and to explore the potential effect of HE on coping planning and self-efficacy (prior to quitting) and whether coping planning and self-efficacy mediate treatment effect. Methods: A two-arm randomized controlled trial was used. Subjects were recruited via Internet advertisements and randomly assigned to condition. Inclusion criteria were willingness to quit on a prescribed day without using nicotine replacement and being aged 18 years or older. The intervention group received HE, and the control group received a 44-page self-help booklet. Abstinence was defined as “not even a puff of smoke, for the last seven days” and was assessed by means of Internet surveys or telephone interviews 1, 3, 6, and 12 months postcessation. The main outcome was repeated point abstinence (ie, abstinence at all four time points). Coping planning and self-efficacy were measured at baseline and at the end of the preparation phase (ie, after 2 weeks of treatment, but prior to cessation day). Results: A total of 290 participants received either the HE intervention (n=144) or the control booklet (n=146). Using intent-to-treat analysis, participants in the intervention group reported clinically and statistically significantly higher repeated point abstinence rates than control participants (20% versus 7%, odds ratio [OR] = 3.43, 95% CI = 1.60-7.34, P = .002). Although no differences were observed at baseline, by the end of the preparation phase, significantly higher levels of coping planning (t261 = 3.07, P = .002) and precessation self-efficacy (t261 = 2.63, P = .01) were observed in the intervention group compared with the control group. However, neither coping planning nor self-efficacy mediated long-term treatment effect. For point abstinence 1 month after quitting, however, coping planning and self-efficacy showed a partial mediation of the treatment effect. Conclusions: This 12-month trial documents a long-term treatment effect of a fully automated smoking cessation intervention without the use of nicotine replacement therapy. The study adds to the promise of using digital media in supporting behavior change.

• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2008). Happy Ending: a randomized controlled trial of a digital multi-media smoking cessation intervention. Addiction. ISSN 0965-2140. 103. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02119.x.
• Kraft, Pål; Drozd, Filip & Olsen, Elin (2008). Digital therapy: Addressing willpower as part of the cognitive-affective processing system in the service of habit change. I Oinas-Kukkonen, Harri; Hasle, Per; Harjumaa, Marja; Segerståhl, Katarina & Øhrstrøm, Peter (Red.), Persuasive Technology. Springer. ISSN 978-3-540-68500-5. s. 177–188. Vis sammendrag

  We know much too little about how to design effective digital interventions to support sustained behavior change and improved well-being. The purpose of the present paper was to contribute in two ways. First, we want to contribute to current practice in designing such interventions. Second, we try to identify key research questions that could be a point of departure for a more detailed and comprehensive future research program. The propositions we suggest reflect that the construction of digital interventions should be seen as an iterative process which should take into account both "content" and "design" factors. However, we argue that intervention research and practical design experience is not just something that follows basic research at a polite distance, but rather is its inherent complement.

• Iversen, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2006). Coping with health related messages: The role of educational level and health consciousness. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153.
• Iversen, Anette Christine & Kraft, Pål (2006). Does socio-economic status and health consciousness influence how women respond to health related messages in media? Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. 21, s. 601–610.
• Kraft, Pål (2005). Terrorens psykologi. I Rasch, Bjørn Erik (Red.), Islamistisk terrorisme. Abstrakt forlag. ISSN 82-7935-179-5. s. 122–144. Vis sammendrag

  Hva kjennetegner islamistisk terrorisme? Hvilke mål har terrorgruppene? Er den radikale islamismen på fremmarsj? Hva får noen til å ta livet av seg selv og flest mulig andre uten å være lei av livet? Hva er egentlig forholdet mellom jihad og politisk vold? Fører terrortrusselen til at etablerte friheter og rettigheter må innskrenkes? Står vi midt oppe i en intens konfrontasjon mellom sivilisasjoner? Dette er noen av spørsmålene som et bredt spekter av eksperter belyser i denne boken. Forfatterne undersøker bakgrunnen for den type terrorisme som preger dagens nyhetsbilde, analyserer ideologien, visjonene og motivene til islamistiske terrorgrupper, og drøfter hvordan terrortrusselen kan og bør møtes.

• Kraft, Pål; Rise, Jostein; Sutton, Stephen & Røysamb, Espen (2005). Perceived difficulty in the theory of planned behaviour: perceived behavioural control or affective attitude? British Journal of Social Psychology. ISSN 0144-6665. 44(3), s. 479–496. doi: 10.1348/014466604X17533. Vis sammendrag

  A study was conducted to explore (a) the dimensional structure of perceived behavioural control (PBC), (b) the conceptual basis of perceived difficulty items, and (c) how PBC components and instrumental and affective attitudes, respectively, relate to intention and behaviour. The material stemmed from a two-wave study of Norwegian graduate students (N = 227 for the prediction of intention and N = 110 for the prediction of behaviour). Data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multiple regression by the application of structural equation modelling (SEM). CFA suggested that PBC could be conceived of as consisting of three separate but interrelated factors (perceived control, perceived confidence and perceived difficulty), or as two separate but interrelated factors representing self-efficacy (measured by perceived difficulty and perceived confidence or by just perceived confidence) and perceived control. However, the perceived difficulty items also overlapped substantially with affective attitude. Perceived confidence was a strong predictor of exercise intention but not of recycling intention. Perceived control, however, was a strong predictor of recycling intention but not exercise intention. Affective attitudes but not instrumental attitudes were identified as substantial predictors of intentions. The findings suggest that at least under some circumstances it may be inadequate to measure PBC by means of perceived difficulty. One possible consequence may be that the role of PBC as a predictor of intention is somewhat overestimated, whereas the role of (affective) attitude may be similarly underestimated.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2003). Control constructs: do they mediate the relationship between eduactional attainment and health behaviour? Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 8(3), s. 361–372. Vis sammendrag

  Health promoting behaviours seem to be more prevalent among people with higher socio-economic status (SES). The main purpose of this article was to study (a) the relationship between education (as a dimension of SES) and intention and health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption), (b) the relationship between education and control conceptualizations (health locus of control (HLC), responseefficacy and self-efficacy) and (c) to what extent the relationship between education and intention/health behaviour (fruit/vegetable consumption)was mediated through different control beliefs. The results showed that women with higher education had higher intentions to consume fruit/vegetables and consumed fruit/vegetables more frequently. Higher education was associated with higher selfefficacy and response-efficacy beliefs and less belief in HLCchance. These control beliefs partly mediated the education–intention/behaviour elationship.

• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Torsheim, Torbjørn (2003). Control constructs: do they mediate the relation between educational attainment and health behaviour? Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. s. 361–372.
• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour : the role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 7(1), s. 33–43.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2002). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), s. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour: The role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 7(1), s. 33–43.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2002). Expanding the theory of planned behaviour: The role of social norms and group identification. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. s. 33–43.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2002). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), s. 613–627.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Ekeberg, Øivind & Dieserud, Gudrun (2001). Toward an integrative model of suicide attempt: A cognitive psychological approach. ?. 31(2), s. 153–168. Vis sammendrag

  Applying a cognitive approach, the purpose of the present study was to expand previous research on stress-vulnerability models of depression and problem-solving deficits, as it relates to suicide attempt. Structural equation modelling, involving latent variables, was used to evaluate (a) whether low self-esteem, a low sense of self-efficacy, loneliness, and divorce constituted vulnerability factors for the development of depression; (b) whether hopelessness and suicidal ideation mediated the relationship between depression and suicide attempt; and (c) whether problem-solving deficits mediated the relationship between the vulnerability factors and suicide attempt, separate from depression/hopelessness. A total of 123 individuals, aged 18-75 years, participated in the study (72 suicide attempters and 51 psychiatric outpatients with no history of suicidal behavior). The results indicated a two path model of suicide attempt. The first path began with low self-esteem, loneliness, and separation or divorce, which advanced to depression, and was further mediated by hopelessness and suicidal ideation which led to suicide attempt. The second path developed from low self-esteem and a low sense of self-efficacy and advanced to suicide attempt, mediated by a negative appraisal of one's own problem-solving capacity, and poor interpersonal problem-solving skills. The importance of addressing both depression/hopelessness, and problem-solving deficits when working with suicide attempters is noted. :

• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolesents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. ?. 16(2), s. 207–222. Vis sammendrag

  The purposes of the study were threefold. First, to test the validity of Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) in predicting intended contraception in the Ethiopian cultural setting. Second, to examine the additional predictive roles of past behavior and perceived pregnancy risk in the TPB model. Third, to identify the salient contraceptive beliefs influencing intended contraception. Data stemmed from a community sample of 354 sexually active female adolescents aged 15 to 19 years. The findings of the study supported TPB as a robust model in Ethiopian cultural setting, with subjective norm being the strongest predictor of intended contraception. In addition, both past contraceptive behavior and perceived pregnancy risk demonstrated to have significant contributions in predicting intention over and above that explained by attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control elements of the TPB. Moreover, the study also identified salient and important contraceptive beliefs that need to be addressed in family life education and counseling programs designed for adolescents and the youth.

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Holsen, Ingrid & Breivik, Solveig (2001). Kroppsbilde og depresssive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), s. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål & Fekadu, Zelalem (2001). Augmenting planned behavior with self-identity theory: Self.identity, past behavior and its moderating effects in predictiong intention. ?. 29, s. 671–685.
• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2001). The relationship between body image and depressed mood in adolescence: A 5-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), s. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolescents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 16, s. 207–222.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Self-identity in planned behavior perspective: Past behavior and its moderating effects on self-identity-intention relations. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal. ISSN 0301-2212. 29(7), s. 671–685.
• Dieserud, Gudrun; Røysamb, Espen; Øyvind, Ekeberg & Kraft, Pål (2001). Towards an Integrative Model of Suicidal Tendency. A Cognitive Psychological Approach. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour. ISSN 0363-0234. s. 153–168.
• Kraft, Pål; Solveig, Breivik; Holsen, Ingrid & Røysamb, Espen (2001). Kroppsbilde og depressive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), s. 191–222.
• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2001). The relationship between body image and depressed mood - a 5-year longitudinal study in Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology. ISSN 1359-1053. 6(6), s. 613–627.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Augmenting planned behavior with self-identity theory: Self-identity, past behavior and its moderating effects in predicting intention. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal. ISSN 0301-2212. s. 671–685.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2001). Predicting intended contraception in a sample of Ethiopian female adolescents: The validity of the theory of planned behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446.
• Kraft, Pål; Breivik, Solveig; Røysamb, Espen & Holsen, Ingrid (2001). Kroppsbilde og depressive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. s. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Holsen, Ingrid & Breivik, Solveig (2001). Kroppsbilde og depresssive tanker - en longitudinell studie av ungdom i alderen 13-18 år. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. ISSN 0040-716X. 42(2), s. 191–222.
• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen; Ekeberg, Øivind & Dieserud, Gudrun (2001). Toward an integrative model of suicide attempt: A cognitive psychological approach. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour. ISSN 0363-0234. 31(2), s. 153–168. Vis sammendrag

  Applying a cognitive approach, the purpose of the present study was to expand previous research on stress-vulnerability models of depression and problem-solving deficits, as it relates to suicide attempt. Structural equation modelling, involving latent variables, was used to evaluate (a) whether low self-esteem, a low sense of self-efficacy, loneliness, and divorce constituted vulnerability factors for the development of depression; (b) whether hopelessness and suicidal ideation mediated the relationship between depression and suicide attempt; and (c) whether problem-solving deficits mediated the relationship between the vulnerability factors and suicide attempt, separate from depression/hopelessness. A total of 123 individuals, aged 18-75 years, participated in the study (72 suicide attempters and 51 psychiatric outpatients with no history of suicidal behavior). The results indicated a two path model of suicide attempt. The first path began with low self-esteem, loneliness, and separation or divorce, which advanced to depression, and was further mediated by hopelessness and suicidal ideation which led to suicide attempt. The second path developed from low self-esteem and a low sense of self-efficacy and advanced to suicide attempt, mediated by a negative appraisal of one's own problem-solving capacity, and poor interpersonal problem-solving skills. The importance of addressing both depression/hopelessness, and problem-solving deficits when working with suicide attempters is noted. :

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Leganger, Anette (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. ?. 15(1), s. 51–69. Vis sammendrag

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the possibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Holsen, Ingrid & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence: Results from a 6-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), s. 61–78. Vis sammendrag

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (I) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, mast pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable ("trait") component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal ("state") component decreased with increased age.

• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 15(1), s. 51–69. Vis sammendrag

  I to studier undersøkes psykometriske egenskaper og sosial-demografiske korrelater til Generell self-efficacy skala (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993. Videre ble forholdet mellom GSE og ulike typer spesifikk self-efficay studert. Artikkelen gjør bruk av data fra 421 norske dagligrøykere 16-79 år og 1576 norske 18 åringer. Resultatene viser at faktor struktur, indre konsistens og test-retest reliabilitet til GSE-skalaen er tilfredsstillende. Videre fant vi støtte for begrepsmessig validitet. Resultatene indikerte et kompleks forhold mellom GSE og henholdsvis kjønn, alder og utdanning. Positiv korrelasjon ble funnet mellom GSE og spesifikk self-efficacy i forhold til å slutte å røyke (SSSE) og self-efficacy relatert til ulykkes risiko (IRSE). SSSE men ikke GSE predikerte intensjon om å forsøke å slutte å røyke. Videre blir forholdet mellom GSE og spesifikk self-efficacy diskutert i forhold til ulike typer attribusjon og muligheten for at verdien av spesifikke mestringsopplevelse kan variere mellom ulike personer og aldersgrupper.

• Holsen, Ingrid; Kraft, Pål & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence – results from a six- year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), s. 61–78. Vis sammendrag

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (1) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, most pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable (“trait”) component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal (“state”) component decreased with increased age.

• Holsen, Ingrid & Kraft, Pål (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence – results from a six-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. s. 61–78.
• Leganger, Anette; Kraft, Pål & Røysamb, Espen (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. s. 51–70.
• Kraft, Pål; Holsen, Ingrid & Vittersø, Joar (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence: Results from a 6-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. ISSN 0047-2891. 29(1), s. 61–78. Vis sammendrag

  A 6-year longitudinal panel study investigated the absolute and relative stability in depressed mood throughout adolescence by reporting data from a sample of 538 adolescents between 13 and 19 years of age. Results revealed the following. (I) Girls had on average higher depressed mood scores than boys at all ages. (2) Among boys there were no substantial changes in depressed mood mean scores, while among girls there was a slight tendency of a curvilinear trend, with a peak level reached in midadolescence. (3) There was a tendency for adolescents to retain their relative level in depressed mood, mast pronounced for a period of 4 years, from age 15 to age 19 years. (4) Depressed mood was most stable in a subgroup of adolescents who had high initial depressed mood scores. (5) By applying structural equation modeling, it was shown that the stable ("trait") component of depressed mood increased in importance with increasing age, while the temporal ("state") component decreased with increased age.

• Kraft, Pål; Røysamb, Espen & Leganger, Anette (2000). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 15(1), s. 51–69. Vis sammendrag

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between GSE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was studied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norwegian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The results indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE and gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations were found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and injury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to different types of attribution and the possibility that the value of different efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout the lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, S & McCreath, H (1999). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. s. 433–450.
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1999). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 14(3), s. 433–450. Vis sammendrag

  Intention to stop smoking was studied by applying the stage variable from the transtheoretical model and a traditional "continuous" 7-poin t intenti measure. 421 respondents, representative of Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79, comprised the sample for the study. As expected, the pros of smoking outweighed the cons in precontemplation, while t he cons of smoking outweighed the pros in the preparation stage. Furt hermore, the hypothesised contrasts for cons between stages were empi rically supported, while those for cessation related confidence and p ros of smoking were not. These findings can be interpreted as providi ng partial support for the idea of qualitatively different stages. Ho wever, all the criterion variables were also linearly associated with the 7-point intention measure. Further analysis showed that includin g the continuous intention measure in a regression model after the in clusion of stage increased the prediction of three criterion variable s, while no gain in information was observed when stage was included in the model after intention. Thus a "continuous" intention measure m ay provide more detailed information than a three-category stage vari able, and the data might just as well have been interpreted as suppor ting the notion of a continuous intention measure.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1999). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. -. Vis sammendrag

  Two studies examine the psychometric properties and socio-demographic correlates of the General Self-efficacy Scale (GSE) (Jerusalem and S chwarzer, 1986; Schwarzer, 1993). Further, the relationship between G SE and different types of task-specific self-efficacy (TSSE) was stud ied. Data from 421 Norwegian daily smokers aged 16-79 and 1576 Norweg ian 18-year-olds were applied. The results showed that the factor str ucture, internal consistency and test-retest reliability of GSE were satisfactory. The construct validity of GSE was also supported. The r esults indicated the existence of complex relationships between GSE a nd gender, age and education, respectively. Positive correlations wer e found between GSE and smoking specific self-efficacy (SSSE) and inj ury risk related self-efficacy (IRSE), respectively. However, GSE did not predict the intention to try to stop smoking while SSSE did. The relationship between GSE and TSSE was addressed with reference to di fferent types of attribution and the possibility that the value of di fferent efficacy experiences may vary between people and throughout t he lifecourse.

• Kraft, Pål; Svendsen, T & Hauknes, A (1998). Intention to stop smoking among Norwegian smokers: The role of nicotine dependence, type of cigarettes and age at onset of daily smoking. Addictive Behaviours. ISSN 0306-4603. s. 133–137.
• Kraft, Pål & Svendsen, Terje (1998). Intention to stop smoking among Norwegian smokers:The role of nicotine dependence, type of cigarettes and age at onset of daily smoking. Addictive Behaviours. ISSN 0306-4603. s. 133–137.
• Kraft, Pål & Svendsen, T (1997). Tobacco use among young adults in Norway 1973-95: Has the decrease levelled out? Tobacco Control. ISSN 0964-4563. s. 27–32.
• Røysamb, Espen; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (1997). On the structure and dimensionality of risk-related behavior. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. s. 437–452.
• Nilsen, Øystein & Kraft, Pål (1997). Do local inhabitants want to participate in community injury prevention. A focus upon the significance of local identities for community participation. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 333–345.
• Røysamb, Espen; Rise, Jostein & Kraft, Pål (1997). On the structure and dimensionality of risk-related behaviour. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 12, s. 437–452.
• Nilsen, Øystein & Kraft, Pål (1997). Do local inhabitants wat to participate in community injury prevention. A focus upon the significance of local identities for community participati. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 333–345.
• Kraft, Pål & Svendsen, Terje (1997). Tobacco use among young adults in Norway 1973-95:Has the decrease levelled out? Tobacco Control. ISSN 0964-4563. s. 27–32.
• Ueland, Øydis & Kraft, Pål (1997). Injury incidence, risk perception and product-related safety among 18and 45-year-olds. International Journal of Consumer Safety. s. 107–117.
• Kraft, Pål; Svendsen, Terje & Hauknes, Arne (1997). Nikotinavhengighet blant norske røykere og konsekvenser for forebyggende tiltak. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening. ISSN 0029-2001. s. 340–345.
• Kraft, Pål; Svendsen, Terje & Hauknes, Arne (1997). Intention to stop smoking among Norwegian smokers: The role of nicotine dependence, type of cigarettes and age at onset of daily smoking. Addictive Behaviours. ISSN 0306-4603.
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1997). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446.
• Kraft, Pål & Loeb, M (1996). On the Replicability and Correlates of the Parent Health Locus of Control Scales. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 433–441.
• Ueland, Øydis & Kraft, Pål (1996). Safety measures taken by Norwegian mothers. Injury Prevention. ISSN 1353-8047. s. 197–201.
• Kraft, Pål & Rise, Jostein (1995). Prediction of attitudes towards restrictive AIDS policies: A structural equation modelling approach. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. s. 711–718.
• Rise, Jostein; Træen, Bente & Kraft, Pål (1994). The Sexual Opinion Survey Scale: A study on dimensionality in Norwegian adolescents. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 458–494.
• Kraft, Pål & Rise, Jostein (1993). The relationship between the sensation seeking scale and smoking, alcohol consumption and sexual behaviour among Norwegian adolescents. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 193–200.
• Kraft, Pål (1993). Sexual knowledge among Norwegian adolescents. Journal of Adolescence. ISSN 0140-1971. s. 3–21.
• Rise, Jostein; Træen, Bente; Kraft, Pål; Totland, Terje; Haukenes, G. & Svardal, A. [Vis alle 7 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (1993). The sexual opinion survey scale: A study on dimensionality in Norwegian adolescents. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. 8(4), s. 485–494. Vis sammendrag

  The purpose of this study was to report upon the dimensionality of a learned emotional trait disposition assumed to generalize to all kinds of sexual activities ('erotophobia-erotophilia') using the Sexual Opinion Survey (SOS) comprising 21 items. The empirical data stem from a nationwide Norwegian study among 17-19 year olds in 1988 (response rate=60.9%; N=1827 of whom 1172 persons had sexual intercourse experience). Dimensionality was studied in terms of factor analysis, internal consistency reliability and construct validity using external criteria. Factor analysis indicated that the SOS scale represents four seperate and distinct dimensions which could be meaningfully interpreted. Alpha coefficients varied from 0.884 to 0.430 for the four subscales. The construct validity procedure seemed to confirm the multidimensionality of the scale, thus the subscales correlated differentially with externalc riteria.

• Kraft, Pål (1992). Public knowledge of AIDS in Norway 1986-1989. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 21–30.
• Kraft, Pål; Rise, Jostein & Træen, Bente (1991). Contraceptive behaviour of Norwegian adolescents. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 431–441.
• Kraft, Pål (1991). Age at first intercourse among Norwegian adole¬scents: a lifestyle perspective. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. s. 207–213.
• Kraft, Pål; Rise, Jostein & Træen, Bente (1990). The HIV-epidemiv and changes in the use of condoms among Norwegian adolescents. AIDS (London). ISSN 0269-9370. s. 672–678.
• Kraft, Pål & Rise, Jostein (1988). Public awareness and acceptance of a HIV/AIDS information campaign in Norway. Health Education Research. ISSN 0268-1153. s. 31–39.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin

• Kraft, Pål (2016). Rusmiddelavhengighet. Et psykologisk perspektiv. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215026268. 232 s.
• Kraft, Pål (2016). Rusmiddelavhengighet - et psykologisk perspektiv. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215026268. 232 s.
• Kraft, Pål (2014). Selvregulering: Om endring av atferd og vaner i det moderne samfunnet. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215024530. 212 s. Vis sammendrag

  Mange av de problemene som moderne menneskene sliter med, henger sammen med manglende selvregulering: bruk av rusmidler, overspising, aggresjon, eller overforbruk av penger. Mange av disse problemene håndteres av kriminalomsorgen, rettsvesenet, helsevesenet, NAV eller barnevernet. Manglende selvregulering er således et problem både for enkeltpersoner og for samfunnet. Forfatterens utgangspunkt er at hjernen og kroppen vår stort sett er slik de var for mange tusen år siden. Helt annerledes er det med samfunnet. Teknologien og kulturen har utviklet seg radikalt på bare noen få hundre år. Resultatet er at vi lever i et hypermoderne samfunn, men med gammeldagse kropper og hjerner. Dette setter store krav til våre evner til selvregulering. Krav som ofte overgår de evnene og mulighetene som vår biologi kan bidra med.

• Kraft, Pål (2002). Opplevd mestringskontroll - en analyse av relevant teori og empirisk forskning. Universitetet i Bergen. ISBN 82-917-13-251. 136 s.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin

• Kraft, Pål (2016). Motvind fra alle kanter. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. ISSN 0332-6470. 53(5), s. 381–385.
• Skeie, Linda Gail; Drozd, Filip; Kraft, Pål & Kvale, Dag (2012). A randomized controlled trial of aweb-based psychological intervention for patients under treatment for chronic HIV infection.
• Kraft, Pål & Yardley, Lucy (2009). Current issues and new directions in Psychology and Health: What is the future of digital interventions for health behaviour change? Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 24(6), s. 615–618. doi: 10.1080/08870440903068581.
• Kraft, Pål & Brendryen, Håvar (2008). A digital smoking cessation intervention evaluated as an information system.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2008). Preventing relapse in a digital smoking cessation intervention.
• Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2008). Digital therapy: A description of a digital and fully automated alcohol intervention.
• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2007). Two randomized controlled trials of a digital smoking cessation program.
• Brendryen, Håvar; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2007). Facilitating happy endings for motivated quitters – Two randomized controlled trials of a digital smoking cessation program.
• Kraft, Pål (2007). Digital Therapy: The coming together of psychology and technology.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). A RCT of an internet and cell-phone based smoking cessation intervention. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 21, s. 23–24.
• Haga, Silje Marie & Kraft, Pål (2006). The role of emotion-regulation and personal self-consciousness for subjective well-being and depressed mood. Psychology and Health. ISSN 0887-0446. 21, s. 61–61.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). Happy Ending: A randomized controlled trial of an internet and cell-phone based smoking cessation intervention.
• Brendryen, Håvar & Kraft, Pål (2006). En randomisert kontrollert studie av en automatisert røykesluttintervensjon basert på bruk av internett og mobiltelefon.
• Rise, Jostein; Kovac, Velibor Bobo & Kraft, Pål (2004). Bridging the intention-behaviour gap of addictive behaviours: the case of quitting smoking.
• Kraft, Pål (2002). Revisiting PBC in the TPB.
• Kraft, Pål (2000). Stage models in health behavior research.
• Fekadu, Zelalem & Kraft, Pål (2000). Self-construals and subjective norms in the theory of planned behaviour in Ethiopia.
• Kraft, Pål; Breivik, Solveig; Vittersø, Joar & Holsen, Ingrid (2000). Body image and deression: a longitudinal study of adolescents aged 13-18.
• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (2000). Social differences in health promoting behaviours: the influence of control beliefs. Vis sammendrag

  Det er dokumentert at det eksisterer ulikhet i helse mellom sosialøkonomisk grupper (SES). I følge en sosial årsaksforklaring ligger grunnlaget for sosial ulikhet i helse i miljøet til sosiale posisjoner. Således vil komponenter av SES (inntekt, utdanning og yrke) være med på å forme ens livsløp og influere viktige områder i livet slik som sosialisering, psykologisk utvikling, sinnsstemning, kognisjon og helseadferd. Hensikten med denne studien var (a)å undersøke SES ulikhet i intensjon og adferd relatert til trening, forbruk av frukt og grønnsaker, og selvundersøkelse av brystene (b)å studere hvordan intensjon og adferd er relatert til ulike typer kontroll (Helse Lokus Kontroll, responseffektivitet, generell og adferds-spesifikk self-efficacy), og (c) studere i hvilken grad disse kontroll begrepene medierer forholdet mellom SES og intensjon/adferd. Data ble samlet inn høsten 1999 og stammer fra et representativt utvalg av kvinner, 45 år, bosatt i Vest-Norge. 403 kvinner besvarte spørreskjema (responsrate 50,8%)og 81,6% av disse (41,5% av hele utvalget) besvarte spørreskjema en måned senere. Relevante resultater vil bli presentert.

• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1998). Perceived self-efficacy in health behaviour research: Conceptualisation, measurement and correlates.
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1998). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different?
• Kraft, Pål; Sutton, Stephen & McCreath, Heather (1997). The transtheoretical model of behaviour change: are the stages qualitatively different?
• Mittelmark, Maurice B & Kraft, Pål (1997). Social ties, support, and connectedness as predictors of psychological well-being.
• Nielsen, Bettina; Mork, Lia; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2012). Evaluation of an internet-based intervention for mild-to-moderate depression and promotion of psychological well-being: A randomized controlled trial. Universitetet i Oslo. Vis sammendrag

  Background: High prevalence of minor depression and low well-being constitutes both individual and societal burden. The Internet provides a promising platform for treatment delivery. Objective and Method: A randomized controlled trial was conducted to determine the efficacy of an internet-based self-help intervention Bedre Hverdag (BH) for mild-to-moderate depression and promotion of well-being. Long-term effects (i.e.6 months) of BH were assessed in comparison to a waiting-list control group. Results: Of the 206 eligible participants, 112 were randomized to the experimental group and 94 to the waiting-list control group. Data from 34 participants in the experimental group and 47 from the control group were subjected to statistical analyses. Individuals assigned to BH reported significant increases in positive affect (PA) at 1 month follow-up, as measured by Positive Affect Schedual (PANAS); z = - 2.49, p = .011, r = .42 , which were significantly different from levels of PA at the same time period in the control group, U = 589, z = -2.01 , p = .044 , r = .2. Increases in PA were no longer significant at 2 and 6 month follow-ups. No statistically significant reductions in negative affect (NA) as measured by the Negative Affect Schedual (PANAS) and depressive symptoms as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D) were observed in the experimental group as compared to the control group. Treatment x Educational attainment interaction explained 5.3% of variance in depressive symptoms, and 10.7% of variance in NA at 1 month follow-up, above and beyond the main effects. Individuals with lowest level of educational attainment reported largest reductions in both CES-D scores and NA. Conclusion: BH produced significant increases in PA at 1 month post-treatment. No significant reductions were observed in either depressive symptoms or NA. Educational attainment moderated the intervention's effects on depressive symptoms and NA.

• Henriksen, Silje; Kraft, Pål & Drozd, Filip (2012). En internettbasert og helautomatisk selvhjelpsintervensjon for stressreduksjon: En randomisert kontrollert studie. Universitetet i Oslo. Vis sammendrag

  Mål: I denne studien undersøkte vi effekten av en internettbasert, helautomatisk intervensjon som har til hensikt å forebygge og redusere forekomst av stress. Intervensjonen inneholder 13 programdager (sesjoner) som brukeren får tilgang til i løpet av en måned. Metode: Studien ble gjennomført i Norge, og var designet som en to-armet, randomisert, kontrollert studie der stress ble målt rett før og etter intervensjonen, og igjen en og fem måneder etter at intervensjonen var avsluttet. Deltakerne ble selvrekruttert via Facebook, e-post og Google AdWords. Det endelige datamaterialet som ble analysert bestod av 43 personer som mottok intervensjonen (behandlingsgruppen; EG), og 63 personer som stod på venteliste, og som først fikk tilgang til intervensjonen etter siste datainnsamling (ventelistekontrollgruppen; VG). Data ble samlet inn ved bruk av elektroniske spørreskjemaer. Resultat: Brukerne av intervensjonen hadde reduserte stressnivåer fem måneder etter intervensjonen, mens tilsvarende utvikling ikke ble observert i VG. Mer detaljerte analyser viste at effekten av intervensjonen på stress ble delvis mediert via økt grad av oppmerksomt nærvær, som er et tema det arbeiders mye med i intervensjonen. Intervensjonenes effekt på stress var ikke påvirket av respondentenes kjønn eller utdanningsnivå. Intervensjonen syntes imidlertid å ha noe bedre effekt blant personer i alderen 23 til 32 år, enn personer i andre aldersgrupper. Konklusjon: Det kan konkluderes med at studien viser at forekomsten av stress kan reduseres ved en internettbasert, helautomatisk selvhjelpsintervensjon.

• Drozd, Filip; Blandhol, Sverre & Kraft, Pål (2012). Teaching Interpersonal Communication Skills Using an Internet Based Intervention: a Randomised Controlled Trial. Universitetet i Oslo. Vis sammendrag

  Skilled interpersonal communication improves individual and group outcomes in life and work. This makes it important to find effective and efficient training methods to teach interpersonal communication skills. Internet based interventions may provide training to a wide audience at low cost and have been shown to be effective for a range of health related behaviours, but so far not for communication skills training. The present study evaluates the efficacy of an internet-based intervention to teach interpersonal communication skills relative to a control group. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. In the treatment condition, participants got access to a four week internet based communication skills training program. The control group was put on a waiting list. Interpersonal communication skills were measured at baseline and at 1 month, 2 months and 6 months follow ups, using a selection of subscales from the Conflict Resolution Questionnaire and the Perspective Taking scale. Analyses did not find any statistically significant effects of the intervention relative to the control group. Several possible reasons for this null finding are discussed, and directions for future research are proposed.

• Soland Olsen, Elise; Drozd, Filip & Kraft, Pål (2010). Balanse i "Balance": En kvalitativ brukerstudie av en nettbasert alkoholintervensjon. Universitetet i Oslo. Vis sammendrag

  Det er i senere tid observert økning av alkoholkonsum og alkoholrelaterte problemer, spesielt blant unge og kvinner. Flere forbruksmønster kan forårsake vesentlig risiko eller skade. Fra et samfunnsperspektiv er det imidlertid ikke avhengighet, men skadelig og risikofylt alkoholforbruk som tilskrives det største skadeomfanget. Digitale intervensjoner overfor denne målgruppen er et relativt nytt fagfelt med nye muligheter og potensial. Studiens formål var å gi en strukturert evaluering av hvorvidt den nettbaserte alkoholintervensjonen Balance fungerer suksessfullt som et informasjonssystem. Dette ble valgt å undersøkes fra et brukerperspektiv, og kvalitative semistrukturerte telefonintervju med 7 brukere ble gjennomført. Resultatene ble analysert ved bruk av teoribasert tematisk analyse, med utgangspunkt i D&M modellen. Her ble 5 komponenter av informasjonssystemet undersøkt: informasjonskvalitet, systemkvalitet, systembruk, brukertilfredshet, og netto utbytte. Resultatene konkluderer med at Balance totalt sett fungerte som et informasjonssystem, spesielt i forhold til informasjonskvalitet og netto utbytte. Den delen som fungerte dårligst var en underkategori av systemkvalitet, men dette virket ikke å påvirke den totale brukertilfredsheten.

• Larsen, Elisabeth; Lund, Karl Erik & Kraft, Pål (2006). En evaluering av tobakkskampanjen ”Hver eneste sigarett skader deg” Evaluering av det offentlige tobakksforebyggende arbeidet i Norge 2003-2007 - rapport 10 fra HEMIL/SIRUS. Statens institutt for rusmiddelforskning. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Tobakkskampanjen "Hver eneste sigarett skader deg" ble gjennomført i Norge fra 6. januar til 16. februar 2003, og hadde som hovedmål å få mottakerne av budskapet til å slutte å røyke eller la være å begynne. Innholdet i kampanjen er basert på den australske kampanjen "Every cigarett is doing you damage", og tar i bruk frykt som virkemiddel ved å vise gruoppvekkende skader på kroppen som følge av røyking. Evalueringen av kampanjen i Norge er basert på to surveyundersøkelser (telefonintervju) i desember 2002 (T1) og mars 2003 (T2). Respondentene fordeler seg med 500 røykere i aldersgruppen 16 -19 år, 500 røykere i aldersgruppen 35-55 år, 500 ikke-røykere i aldersgruppen 16-19 år og 250 ikke- røykere i aldersgruppen 35-55 år ved både T1 og T2. Evalueringen konsentrerte seg om følgende forhold ved kampanjen: (i) oppmerksomhet i befolkningen, (ii) kognitive og emosjonelle reaksjoner; (iii) endringer i røykeatferd og underliggende årsaker. Resultatene viste at kampanjen ble gjenstand for stor oppmerksomhet idet over 90% av respondentene hadde lagt merke til den. Folk hadde særlig lagt merke til de tre videospottene "Aorta", "Tjære" og "Hjerneslag". Samlet sett kan det sies at kampanjen ble godt mottatt i befolkningen, et forhold som trolig kan tilskrives en god lanseringsstrategi. Kampanjen synes ikke å ha fremkalt sterke negative emosjonelle reaksjoner verken hos røykere eller ikke- røykere, unge eller "eldre". Det var imidlertid systematiske forskjeller mellom røykere og ikke-røykere når det gjelder reaksjonene på innholdet i kampanjen. Ikke-røykere vurderte innholdet som mer overbevisende, opplysende og troverdig sammenlignet med røykerne, mens røykerne syntes budskapene var mindre skremmende og fryktvekkende enn ikke- røykerne. Røykere rapporterte også i større grad enn ikke-røykerne at kampanjen var manipulerende og frihetsberøvende. Et sentralt funn var en nedgang i andelen dagligrøykere i befolkningen med 6% i aldersgruppen 35-55 år og 3% i aldersgruppen 16-19 år fra T1 til T2, men nedgangen var ikke statistisk signifikant med den tilgjengelige utvalgsstørrelsen. Dernest var det en statistisk signifikant økning i andelen som rapporterte at de hadde sluttet å røyke i løpet av siste 3 måneder før T2 sammenlignet med T1 i den eldste aldersgruppen. Tendensen var den samme i aldersgruppen 16-19 år. Også når det gjelder forberedende røykesluttaktiviteter går tendense

• Kraft, Pål (2002). Opplevd atferdskontroll (PBC) i teorien om planlagt atferd : teoretiske og metodologiske betraktninger. Institutt for samfunnspsykologi. Det psykologiske fakultet.. ISSN 8291713251.
• Kraft, Pål (1999). Røyking og sosial påvirkning - empirisk forskning og sosialpsykologisk teori. Hemil-senteret.
• Kraft, Pål (1998). Individual health behaviour and societal constraints - some sociological models for conceptualising macro-micro-interactions. The case of smoking. Hemil-senteret.
• Leganger, Anette & Kraft, Pål (1998). Utvikling av røykevaner blant ansatte i Sjøforsvaret. Rapport nr.2 til Sanitetsinspektøren for Sjøforsvaret. [Mangler utgivernavn].
• Kraft, Pål (1991). Aids prevention in Norway : empirical studies on diffusion of knowledge, public opinion, and sexual behaviour. Universitetet i Bergen.

Se alle arbeider i Cristin